The question is how students process the information presented in the classroom setting. Terry (2006) posit the sequence of the information processing sequence model, or the three stages of memory, are encoding, storage, and retrieval (Terry, 2006).
The first stage of memory is image representation or encoding which represents a fleeting experience that is of great importance in the study of information processing. In the visual realm the iconic image is that which occurs during a single glace. Usually lasting approximately 1/15 of a second, iconic storage consists of a series of successive glances each representing a small section of a larger object. In hearing, the duration of different echoic codes are less distinct, but each is a sample of a larger auditory event. This momentary sensory experience provides an abundance of information that when combined with other experiences can lead to the recognition of a particular image or sound (Fogiel & Sherpsteen 2003). The depth of processing theory states rapid forgetting is due, not to loss from a transient short-term storage, but rather to shallow processing. Sustained retention is due not to transfer from one memory store to another, but rather to deeper or more elaborate processing (Terry, 2006).
The second stage is storage. Terry, (2006) asked have you ever felt you never really learned the material, you learned it but it has since been lost from memory, or you learned it, it’s there, but you can’t recall it right now? Terry (2006) suggests we use maintenance rehearsal as a passive repetition of information, repeating something over and over as an attempt to retain information. However, this exemplifies shallow processing. We use maintenance rehearsal to remember a phone number just long enough to dial it or to recall a message long enough to write it down. For longer storage of information we use elaborative rehearsal which is a more active form of processing. It involves meaningful analysis and comprehension of the material, and thus represents a deeper level of processing. Elaborative rehearsal of a phone number could include looking for a pattern among the numbers (a date, your ID number, or pin number).
Where does the information that is rehearsed stored? Fogiel & Sherpsteen (2003) tells us it is stored in short-term and long-term memory. They define the function of both below:
Short-term memory is where the encoded information resides until it can combine with information coming from the next moment or until it can be transferred to long-term memory. Short-term memory has a limited capacity; it can usually store up to about 8 items (Fogiel & Sherpsteen 2003).
Long-term memory does not store all information. But whatever memory is not within short-term memory can be said to be in long-term memory where it is available for use as needed. Attention processes play an important role in determining whether information will be transferred from short to long-term memory (Fogiel & Sherpsteen 2003). Healy & Bourne (as cited in Terry, 2006) presented guidelines that prompt long-term retention.
1. Optimize the conditions of training through spacing and generation effects. If several arithmetic or vocabulary items are to be learned, it is better to intermix them with the study sequence rather than to mass study trials on each. This missing schedule for spacing items will likely slow acquisition of the information at first, as compared to massed practice, but it leads to better retention in the long run. The generation effect refers to getting the participants to generate to-be-remembered answers rather than simply having the experimenter provide the correct answers.
2. Optimize learning strategies by using keyword mnemonic facilitated acquisition and procedure better long-term retention.
3. Train until retrieval is automatic, practice should be continued until retrieval becomes direct.
4. Optimize retention conditions by providing refresher trials or practice quizzes. Practice at retrieval can be just as important as additional study.
The third stage retrieval of information is a most important part of the information processing system of humans. Retrieval can be of two kinds: it can occur rapidly with little or no active recall or it can require attention and effort. The first type of recall is effortless and occurs generally when the new information presented is identical or close to that which has been previously stored. The second is when information presented is not identical to that which has been previously stored it requires more effort to remember (Fogiel & Sherpsteen 2003). Terry (2006) presents the appropriate processing theory which states in order to retrieve memory, we need to reinstate the cognitive operations that were used at encoding. That is, how were we perceiving, manipulating, thinking about, or interpreting the stimuli at the time of input? Reproducing those same cognitive operations at output will best retrieve the memory (Terry, 2006).
Two other theories of how we learn and retain skills are presented by Anderson and Chase and Ericsson. Anderson’s adaptive control of thought theory proposes a two-stage model of skill acquisition, which a transitional step between stages. During the declarative stage of skill learning, information is learned. This stage involves conscious processing and attention. So there is heavy reliance on working memory. The transitional stage is knowledge compilation. The final stage or procedural stage is marked by skill refinement. Continued practice leads to further strengthening of the procedures. The procedural skills are refined as a result of generalization and discrimination. Chase and Ericsson (as cited in Terry, 2006) states skilled memory theory was developed to characterize the skill of those individuals who learned to remember long strings of random numbers. Three central features are postulated. First, during encoding, existing knowledge is used to organize and make target items meaningful. Second, experts have well-developed retrieval routines. Third, with practice, both encoding and retrieval processes become faster (Terry, 2206).
Fogiel, M., & Sherpsteen, D. (2003). The Psychology Problem Solver. Piscataway, NJ: Research & Education Association.
Terry, W. S. (2006). Learning and Memory: Basic Principles, Processes, and Procedures (3 ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
